An Assessment of the Science and Mathematics Apprenticeship (SMA) Summer Program and Its Affect on Minority High School Students
PAGE INDEX
Why EVERY Mentoring Leader Should Read the SMA Article
When we make the decision about which mentoring articles to read, we do ourselves and our programs a great disservice if we ignore the insights of those who are from settings which are different from our own. In almost every case, what others have experienced can be of great value to each of us IF we can think about what they have to offer on a general level. This is sometimes difficult since a lot of writing on mentoring uses setting-specific language. The following article is a terrific example of this truth.
On the surface, the following article seems to address only those in higher education who are interested in math and science and in mentoring disadvantaged high school students. However, by looking beyond the specifics, we can find VALUE FOR ALL SETTINGS because this article really offers us an illustration of an effective, universal and important mentoring model.
Fundamentally, this article shares what we call an “early intervention” model of mentoring. That model asserts that organizations which need a greater diversity, an increased number of any kind of members/employees/participants, or members with greater skills in some area, can meet those needs by extending mentoring support OUTSIDE of their organization to those who are potential “candidates” for participation. A good example is the military services that sponsor R.O.T.C. and see that program as more than just an experience, and instead treat it as a mentoring opportunity. Another exemplar is the K-12 school district that collaborates with a university teacher education program to provide mentors to pre service education students who will come to their schools.
What type of organization has all the diversity it needs? What setting has all the desired participants it needs? While we each may have a mentoring program that is focused on our organization’s most immediate internal needs, we all belong to organizations that could also benefit from expanding our mentoring focus (at some appropriate time) to include the “early intervention” model. Consider the following variations:
Every setting should ultimately consider expanding their mentoring to include the early intervention approach. Here are the specifics on one organization’s approach. Print out this article, grab your highlighter marker, and put on your “early intervention glasses” before you read the following.
An
Assessment of the Science and Mathematics Apprenticeship (SMA) Summer Program
Based on the Experience of Minority High School Students
By Willodean
Burton, Department of Biology, Samuel Jator*, Department of Mathematics, and
Monique Gold, Department of Education, all of Austin Peay State University in
Clarksville, Tennessee.
Abstract
This article presents a program description and assessment based on data concerning theScience and Mathematics Apprenticeship (SMA) Summer Program experience and it’s effect on the college aspirations of some minority student participants in the program.
The goal of the SMA summer program was to increase minority student disposition toward and participation in college level science and mathematics by addressing the major problems associated with minority participation in the field of science and mathematics.
The program involved a series of activities conducted during two summer sessions (2001 and 2002) each lasting four weeks. The students in this pre-college experience attended an orientation to the Program and setting, attended a series of lectures in science and mathematics, conducted research, and wrote research reports. At the end of the program, parents and teachers from the selected high schools together with other professionals were invited to participate in the closing ceremony that included student poster presentations.
The mentoring function was provided to participants by the university faculty and Program leadership. The small size of the participant group (8 in 2001 and 12 in 2002) allowed the faculty mentors to provide completely individualized support, guidance and challenges for each student.
The apprenticeship function was provided by the nature of the students’ involvement in Program activities which required them to act as scientists and mathematicians. This “hands on” aspect of the experience is felt to be critical in engaging students in science and math and in increasing their disposition to eventual college enrollment in science and math majors.
Both the mentoring and apprenticeship aspects of the program were viewed by participants and program leaders as essential components in attaining Program goals. However, these functions are not described in detail in this article. What is provided is the content and structure of the program, along with the research data, conclusions from analysis and Program recommendations. This allows the reader to understand the comprehensive nature of the SMA program and to see how mentoring and the apprenticeship components integrate with that full program.
The evaluation used data collected by a project questionnaire from all SMA students. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. This analysis showed that the program was achieving its goal.
Over the next ten years, the United States will need to train an additional 1.9 million workers for careers in the sciences (Chang, 2002). Recent collegiate enrollment trends indicate that increased involvement of underrepresented minorities will be essential in meeting this demand. Moreover, the participation and persistence of women and minorities in this field are dramatically lower than those of the general student population. Data from the National Science Foundation (NSF, 1994) indicate that racial and ethnic minorities constituted 22% of the civilian labor force but only 14% of the Science and engineering labor force. In 1998, women who received 56 percent of BAs overall comprised 37% of the SME (Science, Mathematics, & Engineering) bachelor degrees conferred, and underrepresented minorities, including African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans, received just 12% of the total SME degrees awarded (NSB, 2002).
As the nation’s economic base shifts increasingly toward technology, the participation and achievement in science and mathematics among minority students will become increasingly important. Unfortunately, minority students who form the most rapidly growing portion of our school population, make up the largest population of students who do not participate in science and mathematic programs. Long term, minority students that are not encouraged or supported to become involved in mathematics and science programs can limit their career choices and their access to a high salaried occupation.
Clark (1999) revealed that adequate preparation and support in science and mathematics enables students to develop intellectually and socially, and to more fully participate in our technological society. A national study examining trends in undergraduate education reveals a steady decline in student interest in the physical sciences and mathematics over the last thirty years (Astin, Parrott, Korn & Sax, 1997).
Research indicates that attitudinal factors contribute to this discrepancy. Also, African-Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos possess strong cultural values of group and community membership that may be at odds with the perceived levels of individualism and competition associated with the sciences (NSF, 1996). These studies also report that a lack of interaction with current participants in SME fields is a barrier to increased interest. For women, the perception of competition and challenge of a science major is paired with their own low self-ratings of ability in analytical fields that have traditionally been male-dominated.
Mentoring Solutions
Mentoring programs that model minority involvement and help prepare and socialize students to SME fields provide a crucial form of support for women and minorities. The support and guidance of peer or faculty mentors have been shown to positively affect retention of students in math and science fields (NSF, 1996). For women in the sciences, mentors help provide a support network that increases student self-confidence and feelings of worth to the field, (Goodman Research Group, 2002). Increased participation of women and minorities is essential in meeting the projected need for SME workers and in providing qualified personnel for the field.
To increase the number of minorities and women in SME, partnerships between two and four year colleges (Change, 2002), and between K-12 and higher education must be established. Colleges and universities can use mentoring as their essential strategy to address this under-representation and to reduce the social and educational barriers that impede minority participation in SME careers. Programs that are successful at increasing the number of minorities in SME careers should be explored and replicated.
There are some studies on the need for increased effectiveness of the pre-college experience, especially regarding its influence on disposition toward obtaining higher education in SME fields. However, the quality of that experience remains the single most important cause of under representation of minorities (Hayden & Gray, 1990). Our study revealed a need for more data to clarify what the necessary components are of an effective pre college experience. Also, many such programs have operated with inadequate evaluation of their outcomes. As a result, the field has inadequate data to sufficiently inform improvement efforts. Some casual evaluations do show many of the students involved in effective intervention programs have continued on to pursue careers in quantitative fields (Wellington, 1984). Our study intends to address this need.
Specifics: The SMA Summer Program Study
The SMA Summer Program is an intervention program that in 2001 and 2002 provided support for minority students from two high schools of the Montgomery County School System of Clarksville, Tennessee.
Study Purposes – Our research had three foci.
Study
Population - The participants in this study were high school students
interested in science and mathematics and whose grade point averages (GPAs)
ranged from average to above average. The program purposefully focused on “average”
students who often have the potential to succeed if they believe they can succeed
and if they are given the opportunity.
Program Description
The program was developed in response to concerns raised by the low number of traditionally under-represented minority students (African American, American Indian / Alaskan Native, or Hispanic) that enter and complete undergraduate degrees in mathematics, the sciences or engineering. Students eligible to participate in this program were United States citizens or legal permanent residents from the two subject high schools in the Montgomery County School System.
Hosted on the campus of Austin Peay State University, the SMA Program was studied during the 2001 and 2002 summer sessions. The direct cost budget of $30,000 was supported by a grant from Verizon and its subsidiaries.
Selection - Each participant was selected based on the contents of an application package that included nomination by a high school teacher, transcripts, two letters of recommendation, and an essay expressing interest in science and mathematics. The selection decisions were made by the program director and co-director based on the quality of the candidates’ submitted materials. The successful candidates were notified two weeks before the program starting date. The 20 students in the four-week program commuted to the APSU campus and each received a stipend of $600.00.
Program
Goals and Objectives
The primary goal of the SMA Summer Program was to increase minority
student disposition toward and participation in science and mathematics by addressing
the major problems associated with minority participation in the field of science
and mathematics.
Thus, the objectives of this program were:
Research Question
Is there a significant difference in students’ level of enthusiasm for mathematics and science before and after the program? The working hypothesis was that “The students’ level of enthusiasm in mathematics and science would increase after the program”.
Research Method
A survey instrument was developed using a list of questions, including the research question provided above. A modified Likert Scale was added to each question to allow data collection on the level of enthusiasm before and after the program. Students completed the instrument prior to and after their SMA Summer Program participation. These data were analyzed using a paired t-test to assess the impact of the SMA Program for the two summer sessions.
Program Activities
To clarify the scope and nature of the SMA Program activities we will describe the general schedule used during the four week program, the typical daily schedule, and the types of activities used across the program.
The Four Week Schedule –
The daily
activities began at 8:00 a. m and ended at 4:00 p. m., from Monday through Friday.
Program activities for the four weeks included:
Faculty Involvement
A number of faculty members from across the APSU campus participated in the program by providing students an overview of (a) how to apply for college, (b) how to receive financial aid, (c) what to expect when living on campus, and (d) the similarities and differences between departments. The time devoted to science and mathematics were directed by the project mentors although some other faculty members from the departments provided assistance. For instance, two mathematics faculty members spoke to the students on two topics, namely, “The History of Mathematics” and “Symmetry in Mathematics”. The science department and the library faculty also provided enormous support to all of the student activities.
Program Components
The program has six components:
1. orientation to the program and setting
2. the college experience
3. mathematics
4. science
5. report writing
6. poster presentation.
Details of
each follow here.
1. Program and College Orientation
The students were oriented to the SMA Program in general, the science and mathematics components in specific, and the college setting and culture in three ways. First, an overview of the entire summer experience was outlined. Table 1 shows the other activities that occurred during the orientation.
Table 1 - SMA Orientation Activities
| Activity | Description |
| Meet and Greet | Ice Breaker Activities: students described themselves using adjectives beginning with the first letter of their first name. |
| Rap Sessions | Questions
and Answers facilitated by packets of college admission and financial aid
materials Student expectations of college: classes, professors, other students |
| Tours | 1. Science
and Math facilities 2. The entire APSU campus 3. Gateway Hospital—Medical Technology Unit |
In addition to Program and College Orientation, the SMA Summer Program had five other components which were listed above. Discussions of components five (research report writing) and six (poster presentations) are integrated into the discussion of the science and math components.
2. The College Experience
This component includes all of the formal SMA Program activities and the informal experience that is supplied by attending the program on the college campus, making college acqaintences, including students, faculty, and staff, and by participation in all the day-to-day experiences of being in a college setting. There is no substitute for this experience in how it helps high school level persons envision themselves as college level students in the future and coming to realize that they can realistically consider attending a college. Further, this experience is an essential aspect of the SMA Program, since participation is such classes and activities also helps potential students realize the possibilities for their development and careers.
3.
Science Component
Science Content and Skills - The science component was designed to
increase minority student awareness of the many fields of study that may be
undertaken as a science major and to stress their use of the scientific method
in acquiring knowledge about nature. The primary field of science for this program
was ecology/environmental studies, with additional emphasis placed on the life
sciences. Ecology was defined as the scientific study of the interactions between
organisms and their environment. Thus, humans play a significant role in the
conditions of the environment and it is important to impress upon young people
how their actions can result in positive or negative effects on the environment,
as well as reveal to them how to answer questions using the scientific method.
Early during the four-week program, the students were introduced to basic anatomy and physiology concepts and skills which included dissections. Lectures and PowerPoint presentations were used to introduce the students to three human body systems: the nervous (brain), sensory (cow eye), and cardiovascular (heart). They learned to identify body structures and to associate structures to functions. This provided an example of typical college science classes. While the major focus was on the human body, students also learned about other organisms within the environment.
Secondly, the scientific study of organisms and the environment was addressed through (a) the scientific method, especially data collection, organization, and analysis; (b) ecosystem assessments, such as vegetation analysis via determining “diameter at breast height” (DBH) for forested areas; (c) energy flow through food chains via examining owl pellets; and (d) human impacts on the environment via conducting aquatic toxicity bioassays using the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protocol for Ceriodaphnia dubia.
Scientific method and data collection, organization, and analysis - The students performed an exercise using the scientific method. The activity, “drops on a penny”, was a modification of Christensen and Christian (1997). The question was asked—how many drops of water could fit on the surface of a penny before spilling over? Each student made a guess; the values were recorded. No standards were established and the students dropped water onto the surface of a penny using a medicine dropper.
A discussion
of the steps of the scientific method followed and included the importance of
standards/protocols when collecting data. Then standards were formulated and
included using (i) the heads side of the penny, (ii) a Pasteur pipette, and
(iii) a specific angle and distance of the pipette from the penny. Again, students
counted the drops placed on the surface of a penny and recorded the data. These
data provided values to conduct both descriptive and inferential statistics.
The numbers were organized into three groups: initial guess, drops without standards,
and drops with standards. Then, using Microsoft Excel statistical functions,
all descriptive parameters were calculated. Additionally, a student t-test was
used to compare the data with standards to that of the other two groups.
Ecosystem assessments via vegetation analysis - Vegetation analysis allows ecologists,
botanists, and foresters to identify and assess terrestrial community structure.
This simple data collection process involved stretching a DBH tape around a
tree trunk and recording the measurements. The measured trees were identified
by genus and species and counted for a specific area. Species diversity indices
were discussed and the students made calculations (species density = (S-1) /ln
N; Margalef’s Index and relative frequency = frequency value, species
A/ total frequency value, all species) from the field data that they collected.
Energy flow through food chains - The owl pellet activity (Carolina Biological) provided a way for the student to observe a food chain, which is energy flow in nature. By dissecting the owl pellet, the students learned the diet of owls and how they (owls) process their food.
Human impacts on the environment via aquatic toxicity test - Aquatic toxicity tests were performed using Ceriodaphnia dubia. Human activities such as gardening, littering, discarding of oil, paint, pesticides, and riding All Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) are all examples of how undesirable environmental conditions can occur. Water is a necessary resource that these activities can adversely affect. The EPA has standard protocols to test water quality using C. dubia and measuring the endpoints—survival and reproduction.
The students used sodium chloride in a toxicity test. The students observed that salt placed on the highway during the winter months washes into streams, ponds, and lakes. Ceriodaphnia dubia were exposed to four treatment concentrations and a control for test duration of four days. The endpoints were measured and the data were analyzed via modified EPA statistical techniques. Student-t test were used to compare the treatment and control groups, then survivorship curves were made and interpreted. The activities conform to the principle that “Hands-on laboratory activities are popular and effective teaching methods, but what good are they if students cannot successfully interpret the data?” (Christensen & Christian, 1997).
Science Poster presentations - The science related activities provided four topics from which students could prepare a poster for the presentation session. All of the students who participated in the program presented a poster to their families, friends, and teachers. In all of the activities, the students were required to follow the scientific method to address the question/problem posed to them. From the data collected, they used critical-thinking skills to provide a logical conclusion to the problem. In doing this, the students were shown the role of mathematics in the field of science.
4.
Mathematics Component
The mathematics component was designed to expose the students to college level
mathematics and encourage them to become mathematicians. Emphases were placed
on critical thinking, logical presentation of facts, mathematical applications
and the use of technology (graphing calculator and computer software). Topics
such as street networks, planning and scheduling, linear programming, statistics,
coding information and mathematical modeling were discussed.
All students learned about the following:
> Finance: which included the circulation of money, the making of investments, the granting of credit and provision of banking facilities;
> Linear programming: which involved minimizing or maximizing quantities subject to certain restrictions in a problem;
> Probability: which included Markov Chains and its applications in business, physical sciences and biology;
> Statistics: which included data collection, data organization and data analysis.
> On the last day of the program students delivered poster presentations that were designed to demonstrate use of all the skills acquired in the program..
Example
of a Mathematics Project
Students collected data on car color, number of cars, and license plate numbers
of the cars that passed on College Street, Clarksville, Tennessee during lunch
hour of 11: 00 a. m. to 1:00 p.m. This activity was done from Monday through
Friday for four weeks. Students were divided into three groups to analyze the
data. The analysis highlighted the following areas.
The Central Limit Theorem applied to license plate numbers - The students recorded the last four digits of the license plate numbers of several cars and randomly selected 1000 of them with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 considered the population. We assume that the last four digits of the license plate numbers were randomly selected samples of size n = 4 from the population. Students were able to show that while the variable from the population was not normally distributed, the distribution of the mean of the last four digits of the license plate numbers was normally distributed. Using the TI-83 graphing calculator and Minitab, the students constructed histograms to illustrate this concept.
The study of categorical variables (car color) - The students also collected qualitative data, in this case, car color. Frequency tables and bar charts were used to present the data with the aid of the TI-83 graphing calculator and Minitab. The students were able to show that white cars had the highest frequency and yellow cars had the least frequency.
Evaluations
All of the students who participated in the SMA Summer Program at Austin Peay State University were included in the evaluation process.
In 2001, eight students attended the program and in 2002 there were 12 students. At the end of the program, each student completed an evaluation sheet during the classroom activities. Data obtained from the survey were statistically analyzed by Program Leaders. The survey instrument used was the Likert Scale, developed by Rensis Likert in the 1920's. The SMA Program’s survey was an attitude test developed to improve the levels of measurement in social research through the use of standardized response categories in survey questionnaires (Hitchcock & Porter, 2004). According to Del Siegle (n. d.) a Likert scale can be designed base on the following: agreement, quality, likelihood, frequency and importance. The survey used the quality version of the Likert scale and included responses that were assigned weights as follows: excellent 5, Very good 4, good 3, fair 2, and poor 1. The survey was peer-validated.
Table 2 in the "Results" section shows the questions and statistical results for the participants.
Results
Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) and inferential statistics were used to report the results of the evaluations. The results for the descriptive statistics are given in Table 2.
Table 2 - 2001 and 2002 SMA Participant Responses to the Questionnaire
| Question | Mean 2001 2002 |
Standard
deviation 2001 2002 |
| The job done by the directors | 4.875 4.500 | 0.354 0.798 |
| The program in general | 3.875 4.000 | 0.835 0.603 |
| Purpose of the program was well explained | 4.375 3.833 | 0.744 0.030 |
| Learned a lot in the program | 4.000 3.833 | 0.756 0.937 |
| Participant’s level of confidence in doing mathematics and science before the program | 3.750 3.75 | 0.886 1.055 |
| Level of confidence in doing mathematics and science after the program | 4.125 3.917 | 0.641 0 .900 |
| The quality of students selected to participate in the program | 2.875 3.667 | 0.991 0.985 |
| The performance of other professionals who helped to lead the program | 4.125 3.583 | 0.835 0.793 |
| The social atmosphere on Campus | 3.875 3.333 | 0.641 1.303 |
| Level of exposure to college curriculum | 4.375 3.667 | 0.518 1.073 |
| Level of enthusiasm to go to college after the program | 4.375 4.583 | 0.518 0.996 |
| Technology use during the program | 4.125 4.250 | 0.835 0.866 |
| Plan to study Science and Mathematics in college | 3.625 3.917 | 1.302 1.379 |
| Impression about Verizon focus grant | 4.375 4.083 | 0.518 0.793 |
| Level of Program publication | 3.875 3.250 | 0.835 0.866 |
Table 3 Demographic of SMA Program students
| Gender | 2001 | 2002 |
| Male | 3 | 2 |
| Female | 5 | 10 |
| Total | 8 | 12 |
| Ethnicity | 2001 | 2002 |
| Black | 7 | 12 |
| Hispanic | 1 | 0 |
| Total | 8 | 12 |
Table 4 - Paired t-test for the Year:
| Year | N | DF | T | P Value |
| 2001 | 8 | 7 | 2.05 | 0.04 |
| 2002 | 12 | 11 | 1.00 | 0.17 |
Note: N is the Sample size, DF is the number of degrees of freedom, and T is the critical value.
Discussion
In analyzing the data, we used both descriptive and inferential statistics. In the area of descriptive statistics, the mean for each category of question under consideration was computed to assess the extent to which each category was successful. Tables 1 shows that the means of the various items are generally above average. For instance, the mean for the level of confidence in mathematics and science before the summer 2001 program was 3.75, After the program the mean increased to 4.125. In this vein, the mean for the level of confidence in mathematics and science before the summer 2002 program was 3.75, and after the program the means increased to 3.917.
Other crucial aspects of the program such as level of exposure to college curriculum had a mean of 4.375 in 2001 and 3.667 in 2002 showing a positive result. The level of enthusiasm to go to college after the program had a mean of 4.357 in 2001 and 4.583 in 2002, which produced a result that directly addresses goal 3. The relatively high numbers in the means and small standard deviations are an indication that the program was highly successful.
In the area of inferential statistics, we performed the paired t-test for the research question stated above and the results are summarized in table 3. Specifically, we found that there was a statistically significant difference in students’ level of enthusiasm in mathematics and science before and after the program for the summer 2001 program (p < 0.05). The result from the summer 2002 program was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Although the result of the summer 2002 program was not significant, the means given in table 1 show that students felt stronger in mathematics and science after the program. Therefore, a program such as the SMA has a very high potential to improve students’ knowledge in and disposition to further study mathematics and science.
Table 2 shows the distribution of students by gender and ethnicity. In the summer 2001, 38% of participants were male and 62% were females. In summer 2002, 17% were males and 83% were females. Further, 87% of the participants were African-Americans and 13% were Hispanic for the 2001 program. In summer 2002, the participants were all African-Americans.
The distribution in race is consistent with the findings reported in the literature. For instance, Alexander (1999) stated that in the United States, the percentage of African Americans (10.1%) and Hispanics (7.3%) in higher education is lower than their population in the general population of 12.1% and 9% respectively. This program provided an avenue for high school students to experience college and have some idea of what to expect from future college enrollmentS. Currently, 50 % of the students who attended this program have entered college.
Community Benefits and Beyond - We believe that the program had a far-reaching effect on the students who participated as well as those who heard of the program. It was a positive recruitment tool for APSU. In fact, 3 of the students from the program enrolled at APSU and as of fall 2003, 9 out of 20 students from the program were enrolled in colleges, pursuing quantitative related fields; This gives the SMA Program a success rate of 45%. Thirty percent (6/20) of the participants remain in high school and are involved in science and mathematics projects through their participation in science fair activities. Additionally, one student used the ideas and concepts learned during the summer program to develop a science fair project, which was presented at local and regional scientific meetings. The program provided an avenue for high school students to interact with minority role models and it stimulates students’ interest in becoming college graduates, with the potential that they may act as role models in their communities
Recommendations
We believe that the program has a far-reaching effect on students. It is our hope that the main features of this program will be replicated in other universities. This program currently uses no parental evaluations and we are recommending that in the future parental involvement be considered as one of the factors. In conclusion, the Science and Mathematics Apprenticeship (SMA) Summer Program could be a reasonable method for recruitment and retention of minorities in science and mathematics.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Verizon Wireless for funding the program, Austin Peay State University for providing a favorable environment for the participants, and Gateway Medical Center, Clarksville, Tennessee for their assistance.
References
Astin, A.W., Parrott, S.A., Korn, W. S. & Sax, L.J. (1997). The American freshman: Thirty-year trends. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA.
Butterfield, Alexandra K. (1999). Self-esteem among upward bound students: Differences by race and gender. Retrieved July 1, 2005, from Web site: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-052499-152039
Chang, J. C. (2002). Women and minorities in the science, mathematics and engineering pipeline. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Number ED 467 855).
Christensen, A. and B. Christian. Dealing with Data.,The Science Teacher. 64:6, 1997.
Carolina Biological Supply Company. Burlington, NC., 2004
Clark, J.V. (1996). Redirecting science education: Reform for a culturally diverse classroom. Thousand, Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Goodman Research Group (2002). Final report of the women’s experience in college engineering (WECE) project. Cambridge, MA: Author.
Hayden, L. B., & Gray, M. W. (1990). A Successful intervention program for high ability minority students. School Science and Mathematics, 90(4), 323-333.
Hitchcock, A. and Porter, Methodology Recipe K. Retrieved July 20, 2004, from http://www.arches.uga.edu/~porterk/likertscale.html
Marieb, E.N. (2002). Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual. Benjamin Cummings, New York.
Munoz, Marco A.; Clavijo, Catherine (2000). Educational opportunities for minority students: Lessons learned from a summer high school math and science program.
National Science Foundation. (1994). Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering. Washington, DC.
National Science Foundation. (1996). Women, minorities, and personal with disabilities in science and engineering: 1996. (Report No. NSF 96-311). Arlington, VA: Author. (ERIC document Reproduction Number ED 402 192).
National Science Board. (2002). Science and engineering indicators-2002, (Report No. NSB-02-1). Arlington, VA:Author.
Smith, R. L. and Smith, T. M. (2001). Ecology and Field Biology. Benjamin Cummings, New York.
Siegle, D. Retrieved July 20, 2004, from http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Instrument%20Reliability%20and%20Validity/Likert.html
Smith, R. L. and Smith, T. M. Elements of Ecology. Benjamin Cummings publisher, 5th ed. 2003
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (1994). Short-term Methods for Estimating the Chronic Toxicity of Effluents and Receiving Water to Freshwater Organisms. Research and Development (MD-591). EPA-600-4-91-002.
Wellington, R. G. (1984). Subsequent academic and career development of participants in selected NSF student science training (pre-college) programs. (DDJ-74-09447). 34/10A:6478.
The authors of this article may be reached by contacting Samuel Jator, Department of Mathematics, Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, TN 37044, by e-mail at Jators@apsu.edu or by phone at 931-221-7313.